Metal-Organic Frameworks for Adsorption of Liquid Phase Compounds

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides for the use of a metal-organic framework (MOF) in removing particular chemical species or compounds, in particular oxy-anions, from a liquid or liquid stream. In some embodiments, the MOF is a Zr-based MOF, such as NU-1000, and the oxy-anions that are removed include, include, for example, oxy-anions of selenium, including selenite (SeO 3   2− ) and selenate (SeO 4   2− ); oxy-anions of antimony, including oxy-anions in either the Sb[III] (antimonite) or the Sb[V] (antimonate) redox state; and oxy-anions of lead, including oxy-anions in either the Pb[II] or the Pb[IV] redox state, such as Pb(OH) 6   2− , Pb(OH) 6   4− , PbO 3   2− , and PbO 2   2− . The Zr-based MOF, including NU-1000 can be used to remove these oxy-anions from various liquid streams in industrial processes such as a nuclear and fossil fuel power plants, including the latter&#39;s flue gas desulfurization system.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of prior application Ser. No. 15/094,980, filed Apr. 8, 2016, which claims the benefit of provisional Application No. 62/146,275, filed Apr. 11, 2015. The entirety of each of the foregoing applications is incorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The present invention and its embodiments relate to the removal of a given chemical species from a liquid. In particular, the present invention and its embodiments relate to the use of a metal-organic framework having particular properties suitable for adsorption of oxy-anions from a liquid stream.

Description of Related Art

Nuclear utilities are challenged with the removal of several impurities that significantly contribute to or drive dose, radioactive waste generation, environmental effluent waste concerns, and materials degradation issues. Analogously, fossil-based power generation facilities are challenged by the regulatory discharge requirements for wastewater from flue gas desulfurization and from scrubber, fireside washing, and boiler cleaning operations, as well as by the mandates for groundwater remediation due to coal pile run-off and ash pond leachates. Current technologies (e.g., ion exchange) lack the ability to remove these impurities to the extent needed due to factors associated with the mechanism of capture and competition with other impurities.

Recently developed sequestration media offer organo-metallic ligands decorated on resin backbones (in the locations which would otherwise bear a cation exchange group) that are significantly improved removal media for analytes that are cations like cobalt. Unfortunately, such ligands cannot accommodate the larger geometry of oxy-anions of species like selenium that are found in the subject water streams. For example, ion exchange and adsorption technologies are typically used to capture chemical impurities in water streams. However, these technologies are subject to several significant drawbacks. They are non-specific (i.e., will capture many different species to some degree), subject to competition (i.e., higher concentration species will dominate), and are reversible (i.e., captured species will be released given changes in water conditions).

Removal of selenium from water streams is of particular interest. Selenium is a naturally occurring element that is essential, in low concentrations, for human health. Of all essential elements however, selenium has the most confining range between dietary deficiency (<40 μg/day) and toxicity (>400 μg/day). Selenium enters our waterways through a number of different sources such as agricultural runoff, mining, industrial production, and flue gas desulfurization processes. As a consequence of the narrow range between deficiency and toxicity, it is very important to monitor and control the amount of bioavailable selenium in our drinking water. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recognizes the dangers of selenium and has mandated the maximum acceptable level for selenium in drinking water to 50 ppb. However, in more recent proposals, regulatory plans to reduce selenium discharge requirements to 14 ppb and then as low as 10 ppb, making the present operation of many flue gas desulfurization wastewater cleanup facilities incapable of achieving such purity without methods beyond typical ion exchange or adsorption engineering unit operations.

Selenium can occur in both organic and inorganic forms, but the high solubility and hence bioavailability of inorganic species such as selenite (SeO₃ ²⁻) and selenate (SeO₄ ²⁻) makes these anions the primary focus of remediation techniques. Many techniques have been explored for the removal of selenite and selenate from water including the use of vertical flow wetlands and bioreactors, but high start-up costs and size requirements have limited the application of these techniques. An alternative approach that has been investigated involves using an adsorbing media to soak up and remove unwanted inorganic selenium. Iron oxides (hematite, goethite, and ferrihydrite) have been studied extensively as potential adsorbents for selenite and selenate in aqueous solutions. These iron-based materials have very low surface areas, meaning that a lot of the material is wasted due to the lack of available adsorption sites. Iron oxides also tend to be effective for selenite removal due to the formation of inner-sphere complexes between the selenite anion and iron oxide surface while selenate removal is not as sufficient because only weak, outer-sphere interactions occur.

Therefore, a novel technology is needed that effectively and efficiently removes specific impurities, such as oxy-anions, including oxy-anions of selenium and others, from water and other liquid streams, such as other industrial water-based streams. There is a need for such technology to remove these impurities in the presence of other competing species, or species that may compete for removal thereby effectively reducing the removal efficiency of the species targeted for removal. There is also a need for such technology to remove these impurities in a manner that specifically targets capture of that impurity and minimizes any reversibility or release from capture, thereby holding it with a much higher binding energy. In particular, a different type of structural media is required to specifically address removal of low levels of particular species, such as aqueous oxy-anions of selenium, with high enough binding energy to maintain near irreversible uptake as analyte concentrations are lowered while competitor concentrations are simultaneously raised.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides for the use of a metal-organic framework (MOF) in removing particular chemical species or compounds, in particular oxy-anions, from a liquid or liquid stream. In some embodiments, the oxy-anions that are removed include, for example, oxy-anions of selenium, including selenite (SeO₃ ²⁻) and selenate (SeO₄ ²⁻); oxy-anions of antimony, including oxy-anions in either the Sb[III] (antimonite) or the Sb[V] (antimonate) redox state; and oxy-anions of lead, including oxy-anions in either the Pb[II] or the Pb[IV] redox state, such as Pb(OH)₆ ²⁻, Pb(OH)₆ ⁴⁻, PbO₃ ²⁻, and PbO₂ ²⁻.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides for the use of a metal-organic framework for removing oxy-anions, such as those described above, from a liquid stream, such as an industrial process liquid stream, including, for example, a wastewater stream. In particular, the present invention provides a method to reduce the concentration of oxy-anions in a liquid stream, comprising contacting a liquid stream comprising an oxy-anion with a structure comprising an MOF having a molecular formula of Zr₆(μ₃-O)₄(μ₃OH)₄(OH)₄(H₂O)₄(TBAPy)₂, wherein TBAPy is 1,3,6,8-tetrakis (p-benzoic-acid)pyrene (known as NU-1000); and complexing at least a portion of the oxy-anion onto the metal-organic framework, either by binding to the zirconium derived nodal features of the MOF structure or by binding to specialized ligands tethered to the node of the MOF and providing a ligand selective for oxy-anion uptake, or both, thereby reducing the concentration of the oxy-anion in the liquid stream. The ability of NU-1000 to reduce the concentration of the oxy-anion in water provides for a more environmentally acceptable water stream.

The present invention also features additional capability of reducing oxy-anion concentration in an aqueous liquid stream to ultra-low levels when the stream also comprises competing species such as oxy-anions of sulfur or boron, as well as sodium cations present in the local fluid near the nodal uptake points for the purpose of charge balance, wherein the competing species are those that compete for nodal adsorption sites on the MOF but such that the oxy-anion effluent concentrations are able to be maintained at a low level even when the concentration of such competing species initially exceeds the effluent concentration of the oxy-anion targeted for removal, in some embodiments by a considerable factor. The present invention further achieves the required effluent oxy-anion concentrations even as temperature is raised from room temperature to more frequently encountered processing temperatures of condensate cooling waters in typical electrical power generation plants. The present invention also includes potential embodiments wherein one skilled in the art should be able to apply known methodologies to reduce the commercial cost of using the NU-1000 MOF for water treatment applications by either applying regeneration procedures known in the art on MOF-based media, such as NU-1000, that has been previously exposed to oxy-anions or by applying metalation chemistries known in the art to substitute less costly metal constituents in the MOF, such as Hafnium (Hf) for Zirconium (Zr), or both.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates a metal organic framework (MOF) according to one embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 2 illustrates a particular MOF, NU-1000;

FIG. 3 illustrates structural features of the MOF, NU-1000 of FIG. 2;

FIG. 4A illustrates a structure of NU-1000 highlighting the hexagonal pore size and the structure of the Zr₆ node;

FIG. 4B illustrates a structure of UiO-66 highlighting the octahedral pore size and the structure of the Zr₆ node;

FIG. 5 is a bar graph illustrating the number of selenate or selenite molecules adsorbed per node in a series of Zr-based MOFs;

FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating the kinetics of selenate and selenite uptake in NU-1000, UiO66-NH₂ and UiO66-(NH₂)₂;

FIG. 7 illustrates a flow chart outlining the screening process for selenate and selenite adsorption in Zr-based MOFs;

FIG. 8A illustrates DRIFTS spectrum of as-synthesized NU-1000 (lower trace) and after adsorption of two molecules of selenite (middle trace) and selenate (upper trace);

FIG. 8B illustrates DRIFTS spectrum blown up from 4000-2000 cm⁻¹;

FIG. 8C illustrates potential binding modes of selenate (or selenite) to the node of NU-1000;

FIG. 9A illustrates calculated differential pair distribution functions (PDFs) for selenite and selenate-loaded NU-1000;

FIG. 9B illustrates experimental differential PDFs for selenite and selenate-loaded NU-1000 only showing peaks at distances matching μ₂μ₂ binding;

FIG. 10 illustrates selenate and selenite uptake vs. time in NU-1000 (2 mg) at low concentration and a starting concentration of 1000 ppb as Se;

FIG. 11 illustrates selenate and selenite uptake vs. time in NU-1000 (2 mg) at low concentration and 40° C. and a starting concentration of 1000 ppb as Se;

FIG. 12 illustrates the selenate and selenite uptake vs. time in NU-1000 (2 mg) at low concentration and pH 6 and a starting concentration of 1000 ppb as Se;

FIGS. 13A-E illustrate the amount adsorbed (q) vs. time at various concentrations of selenate and selenite per node of NU-1000, wherein the amount adsorbed is presented in weight of the full oxy-anion in milligrams normalized by the weight of the bare NU-1000 MOF in grams;

FIGS. 14A-C illustrate a Langmuir plot (linear, type I) for selenite and selenate adsorption on NU-1000, with adsorbed amount as the weight of the full oxy-anions;

FIG. 15A illustrates a powder X-ray diffraction pattern of as-synthesized NU-1000 compared to NU-1000 after adsorption of selenite or selenate;

FIG. 15B illustrates a nitrogen adsorption isotherm of as-synthesized NU-1000 compared to NU-1000 after adsorption of selenite or selenate;

FIGS. 16A-C illustrate selenate and selenite uptake as a function of time using 2 mg of NU-1000 and 10 mL of aqueous solution containing 100 ppb Se and (a) 100 ppb sulfur S and (b) 500 ppb S and (c) 1000 ppb S as sulfate;

FIGS. 17A-B illustrate the uptake of Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ over time in terms of uptake per node;

FIG. 18 illustrates a Langmuir fitting from the Sb[V] adsorption isotherms of FIG. 17;

FIG. 19 illustrates the powder x-ray diffraction pattern for NU-1000 and NU-1000 with Sb(OH)₆ ⁻; and

FIG. 20 illustrates the nitrogen isotherm for NU-1000 and NU-1000 with Sb(OH)₆ ⁻.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is more fully described below with reference to the accompanying drawings. While the invention will be described in conjunction with particular embodiments, it should be understood that the invention can be applied to a wide variety of applications, and the description herein is intended to cover alternatives, modifications, and equivalents within the spirit and scope of the invention and the claims. Accordingly, the following description is exemplary in that several embodiments are described (e.g., by use of the terms “preferably,” “for example,” or “in one embodiment”), but this description should not be viewed as limiting or as setting forth the only embodiments of the invention, as the invention encompasses other embodiments not specifically recited in this description. Further, the use of the terms “invention,” “present invention,” “embodiment,” and similar terms throughout this description are used broadly and are not intended to mean that the invention requires, or is limited to, any particular aspect being described or that such description is the only manner in which the invention may be made or used.

In general, the present invention is directed to a metal-organic framework (MOF) for use in removing particular compounds, in particular, oxy-anions, from a liquid or liquid stream. In some embodiments, the MOF is a Zr-based MOF, such as NU-1000, and the oxy-anions that are removed include, for example, oxy-anions of selenium, including selenite (SeO₃ ²⁻) and selenate (SeO₄ ²⁻); oxy-anions of antimony, including oxy-anions in either the Sb[III] (antimonite) or the Sb[V] (antimonate) redox state; and oxy-anions of lead, including oxy-anions in either the Pb[II] or the Pb[IV] redox state, such as Pb(OH)₆ ²⁻, Pb(OH)₆ ⁴⁻, PbO₃ ²⁻, and PbO₂ ²⁻. It should be appreciated that the preferred mechanism for adsorption of the oxy-anion is nodal uptake via the zirconium oxide/hydroxide nodal features of the MOF.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides for the use of a metal-organic framework for removing oxy-anions, such as those described above, from a liquid stream, such as an industrial process liquid stream, including, for example, a wastewater stream. In particular, the present invention provides a method to reduce the concentration of oxy-anions in a liquid stream, comprising contacting a liquid stream comprising an oxy-anion with a structure comprising an MOF having a molecular formula of Zr₆(μ₃O)₄(μ₃OH)₄(OH)₄(H₂O)₄(TBAPy)₂, wherein TBAPy is 1,3,6,8-tetrakis (p-benzoic-acid)pyrene (known as NU-1000); and complexing at least a portion of the oxy-anion onto the metal-organic framework, either by binding to the zirconium derived nodal features of the MOF structure or by binding to specialized ligands tethered to the node of the MOF and providing a ligand selective for oxy-anion uptake, or both, thereby reducing the concentration of the oxy-anion in the liquid stream. The ability of NU-1000 to reduce the concentration of the oxy-anion in water provides for a more environmentally acceptable water stream.

FIG. 1 illustrates a MOF according to one embodiment of the present invention. MOFs are structurally diverse, porous materials that are constructed from metal nodes bridged by organic linkers. MOFs are composed of multi-functional organic linkers and metal-based nodes that are interconnected by coordination bonds of moderate strength. In terms of adsorption or complexation of analyte molecules from aqueous solutions, MOFs containing zirconium metal nodes are of interest due to their inherent stability over a wide pH range in water. This stability arises from the strong Zr(IV)-O bonds, which also makes these frameworks mechanically and thermally robust to temperatures >500° C. MOFs in aqueous solution are appropriate candidate materials in either pre-coatable filter/demineralizer applications or independent packed column separation applications, which may also be consistent with use in vessels already in existence with a given plant, such as a nuclear power plant (e.g., vessels already in use for ion exchange) or a fossil fueled electricity generation plant's flue gas desulfurization wastewater treatment facility.

While the MOF may be usable in such liquid flow applications in its native structure, it is possible that the amount of pressure required to permeate packed beds of such small particles (typical size ranging from 75 to 1200 nanometers with 5 micron crystallites forming from the MOF particles) may exceed available fluid driving equipment, meaning that the MOF particles may need to be ported upon some other larger particle carrier (more of the order of a resin particle, typically 50 to 850 microns diameter in powder or bead form) such that fluid may permeate conglomerates of carrier particles more easily. One of ordinary skill in the art ought to be able to construct multiple methodologies for contacting the MOF particles onto some suitable carrier particle such that the hydraulic permeability of a conglomerate of such carrier particles, either in a columnar flow through a bed of such carrier particles or a flow through a filter providing a porous surface onto which such carrier particles are coated, is sufficiently high to afford the required fluid volumetric throughput. As such, the adsorptive properties of the MOF will still manifest since the MOF itself will be exposed to the analyte in the water stream as it flows about the carrier particles onto which the MOF media are attached.

FIG. 2 illustrates a particular MOF, NU-1000. NU-1000 is a Zr-based MOF and has the molecular formula of Zr₆(μ3-O)₄(μ3OH)₄(OH)₄(H₂O)₄(TBAPy)₂, wherein TBAPy is 1,3,6,8-tetrakis (p-benzoic-acid)pyrene that can be used as the MOF in the present invention. The parent-framework node of this MOF consists of an octahedral Zr₆ cluster capped by four μ₃-OH and four μ₃-O ligands. Eight of the twelve octahedral edges are connected to TBAPy units, while the remaining Zr coordination sites (after activation) are occupied by four terminal —OH and four terminal —OH₂ ligands. The 3D structure can be described as 2D Kagome sheets linked by TBAPy ligands. Two of the four terminal —OH groups point into the mesoporous channels, while the remaining terminal hydroxyls lie in smaller apertures between the Kagome sheets.

FIG. 3 illustrates structural features of the MOF, NU-1000 of FIG. 2. Further features of this MOF and its synthesis technique are described in Mondloch, J E, W Bury, D Fairen-Jimenez, S Kwon, E J DeMarco, M H Weston, A A Sarjeant, S T Nguyen, P C Stair, R Q Smurr, O K Farha and J T Hupp, “Vapor-Phase Metalation by Atomic Layer Deposition in a Metal-Organic Framework”, J. Am. Chem. Soc. (2013) 135, 10294-10297, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. For example, synthesis of the organic linker of NU-1000 involves two steps: a Suzuki coupling between 1,3,6,8-tetrabromopyrene and 4-(ethoxycarbonyl)phenyl)boronic acid followed by hydrolysis of the resulting tetraester compound to give the tetracarboxylic acid linker, 1,3,6,8-tetrakis(p-benzoic acid)-pyrene. To synthesize NU-1000, the Zr₆-cluster nodes are first formed by reacting zirconyl chloride octahydrate with excess benzoic acid modulator for 1 hour at 80° C. in N,N-dimethylformamide. After cooling the reaction mixture to room temperature, 0.2 equivalents of the 1,3,6,8-tetrakis(p-benzoic acid)-pyrene linker are added and the mixture is heated at 100° C. for 24 hours to give benzoic acid capped NU-1000. To remove the benzoic acid ligands and reveal the terminal —OH and —OH₂ on the nodes, the MOF is activated with 8M HCl for 24 hours. It should also be appreciated that less pure starting materials of ZrOCl₂.8H₂O and HfOCl₂.xH₂O to reduce the costs of manufacture of the NU-1000. For example, 99.99% pure ZrOCl₂.8H₂O and HfOCl₂.xH₂O cost approximately 400% more than the 98% pure precursors.] Also, structural features of this MOF are described in Planas, N.; Mondloch, J. E.; Tussupbayev, S.; Borycz, J.; Gagliardi, L.; Hupp, J. T.; Farha, O. K.; Cramer, C. J. Defining the Proton Topology of the Zr₆-Based Metal-Organic Framework NU-1000. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2014, 5, 3716-3723, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Bare NU-1000 has surprisingly been found to complex with oxy-anions of selenium, including selenite (SeO₃ ²⁻) and selenate (SeO₄ ²⁻), in aqueous solutions. Results to date indicate that oxy-anions of selenium bond with significant strength so as to remove those anions down to 20 ppb levels in simple continuous stirred tank environments within reasonably and relatively fast times and to even lower concentrations, such as 10 ppb and lower, 6 ppb and lower, and 2 ppb and lower in other embodiments. The bonding for selenate and selenite are shown to be to the zirconium nodes of the MOF directly, without worry for the ligand interactions with the MOF cavity. It should be appreciated that the ability of NU-1000 to complex with selenite and selenate has been accomplished without the need for modifying the structure of NU-1000, for example, by functionalizing NU-1000 through metalation using atomic layer deposition (ALD), through solvent-assisted linker exchange (SALE), nor through solvent-assisted ligand incorporation (SALI).

Specifically, a series of zirconium-based MOFs were tested for their ability to adsorb and remove selenate and selenite anions from aqueous solutions. MOFs were tested for adsorption capacity and uptake time at different concentrations. (FIG. 7 is a flow chart outlining the screening process for selenate and selenite adsorption in Zr-based MOFs.) NU-1000 was shown to have the highest adsorption capacity, and fastest uptake rates for both selenate and selenite, of all zirconium-based MOFs in this testing.

Different ratios of adsorbent:adsorbate were tested to understand how the ratio affects uptake. Samples of 2, 4, 6, and 8 mg of NU-1000 were exposed to 10 mL solutions containing 1000 ppb Se as either SeO₄ ²⁻ or SeO₃ ²⁻. At all the adsorbent:adsorbate ratios tested, 98.3% or more of the SeO₃ ²⁻ in solution is adsorbed leaving an average of 10-17 ppb in solution. Similarly, at all adsorbent:adsorbate ratios tested, 97.7% or more of the SeO₄ ²⁻ in solution is adsorbed leaving an average of 20-23 ppb in solution. In general, these experiments show that changing the adsorbent:adsorbate ratio by 4×, at these concentration levels, does not have a significant impact on the total Se adsorbed from solution. It should be noted that throughout testing NU-1000 for Se uptake, for example studies performed at pH 6 and analogous batch studies performed using 100 ppb Se starting concentrations instead of 1000 ppb, remnant Se concentrations less than 10 ppb (down to 6 ppb and 2 ppb) have been observed when exposing 2 mg of NU-1000 to 1000 ppb and 100 ppb Se respectively. In such embodiments, the present invention may be used to reduce the total selenium concentration (i.e., the total of all selenium species) to less than 10 ppb or the amount set for suitable drinking water standards. Accordingly, the present invention may reduce the total Se concentration in a given liquid or liquid stream by more than 90%, by more than 94%, and by more than 98% in some embodiments.

FIG. 4A illustrates a structure of NU-1000 highlighting the hexagonal pore size and the structure of the Zr₆ node. FIG. 4B illustrates a structure of UiO-66 highlighting the octahedral pore size and the structure of the Zr₆ node. Metal-organic frameworks from the NU-1000 (FIG. 4A), UiO-66 (FIG. 4B), and UiO-67 families were screened for their selenate and selenite uptake ability. For initial screening, two samples of each MOF were exposed separately to aqueous solutions of either selenate (100 ppm Se) or selenite (100 ppm Se). After 72 hours of exposure, UiO-66 adsorbed 54% and 34% of the selenite and selenate present in the respective solutions, suggesting that anion exchange is occurring both on, and within, the MOF. This demonstrates that Zr-bound hydroxides in a MOF are useful for adsorption of selenium oxy-anions, despite the strongly bridging nature of the OH group in the nodes of UiO-66. Furthermore, anion exchange appears to be enhanced by the presence of Lewis/Brønsted basic amine groups on the terephthalic acid linker with UiO-66-(NH₂)₂ and UiO-66-NH₂ showing some of the highest selenate and selenite adsorption per Zr₆-node among the MOFs studied (FIG. 5). Without being bound by theory, this is likely a consequence of hydrogen bonding interactions between the amine groups and selenate and selenite anions, similar to hydrogen bonding motifs in amine-containing macrocyclic frameworks which have high affinities for sulfate and selenate anions.

FIG. 5 is a bar graph illustrating the number of selenate or selenite molecules adsorbed per node in a series of Zr-based MOFs. FIG. 5 shows that of the seven MOFs examined, NU-1000 achieves the highest degree of uptake of selenate as well as selenite, both gravimetrically and on a per-node basis. It also accomplishes the most complete removal of these ions from a 100 ppm Se test solution, i.e. 88% (SeO₄ ²⁻) and 90% (SeO₃ ²⁻). These results underscore the value and importance of MOFs with non-structural-ligand lability in accomplishing anion uptake.

Again, without being bound by theory, an alternative mode of uptake could conceivably be adsorption of the selenate/selenite sodium salt through, for example, oxy-selenium-anion/node-aqua(hydroxy) hydrogen bonding. ICP-OES (inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy) measurements reveal no sodium adsorption in the MOF, indicating that the adsorbates cannot be salts and implying that each adsorbed oxy-selenium di-anion must be charge-balanced by loss of two anionic ligands (presumably hydroxides) from the MOF. ICP-OES measurements additionally established that no zirconium is lost to solution.

FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating the kinetics of selenate and selenite uptake in NU-1000, UiO66-NH₂ and UiO66-(NH₂)₂. Given the high capacities of UiO-66-NH₂, UiO-66-(NH₂)₂, and NU-1000 for selenate and selenite, the kinetics of SeO_(x) ²⁻ uptake were also evaluated. As shown in FIG. 6, limiting high-capacity uptake from 100 ppm solutions required ca. 70 hours or more with UiO-66-(NH₂)₂, about 27 hours with UiO-66-NH₂, and less than 3 hours with NU-1000. The faster uptake by NU-1000 compared with UiO-66 and its derivatives is likely related to aperture and pore size. NU-1000 has triangular and hexagonal pores, which are 12 Å and 30 Å in diameter, respectively, with apertures of the same size (FIG. 4A), while UiO-66 comprises tetrahedral and octahedral pores that are 8 Å and 11 Å in diameter, respectively, with an aperture of 7 Å. (FIG. 4B shows the octahedral pore.) The apertures of UiO-66-NH₂ and UiO-66-(NH₂)₂ are anticipated to be even smaller. Selenate and selenite anions have radii of 2.4 Å and 2.6 Å, respectively. Therefore, based on pore size vs. analyte size alone, one would expect diffusion of selenate and selenite through the pores of NU-1000 to be faster than diffusion within UiO-66 derivatives.

Notable features for both NU-1000 and UiO-66-NH₂ are their ability to take up selenate and selenite with essentially equal efficacy—both kinetically and in terms of uptake capacity. The ability to adsorb both forms of inorganic selenium is an important feature for selenium remediation. The high adsorption capacity combined with fast uptake time using NU-1000 suggests that both aperture size and the presence of substitutable ligands (aqua and hydroxy groups) on the Zr₆ node may be important for attaining high uptake capacity and fast uptake kinetics.

Examination of the periodic table of elements would suggest that oxy-anions of the following elements might also be expected to be taken up by such MOFs like NU-1000 in a manner analogous to selenium, namely, oxy-anions of aluminum (that is, water soluble aluminum oxides/hydroxides), silicon (that is, silicates and hydrosilicates), phosphorus (such as phosphates and hydrophosphates), sulfur (that is, sulfates), chlorine (such as chlorates and perchlorates), geranium (that is, water soluble oxides/hydroxides of geranium), arsenic (such as, arsenates), tin (that is, stannates), antimony (such as antimonates and antimonites), iodine (such as iodates, per-iodates and iodites), and lead (that is, water soluble oxides/hydroxides of lead).

To gain insight into the mechanism(s) of selenate and selenite adsorption on NU-1000, maximum adsorption capacities per Zr₆ node were determined. When exposed to aqueous solutions containing various concentrations of selenate and selenite anions ranging from 2-7 per node, the maximum adsorption capacity of NU-1000 was found to be two anions per node (Table S1). In addition, the affinities of NU-1000 for selenate and selenite are similar under these conditions, suggesting perhaps that the two analytes are bound in a similar fashion. At initial concentrations corresponding to more than six per node (>90 ppm Se for the solution volume and the amount of sorbent examined), NU-1000 is shown to take up more than two anions per node with concomitant adsorption of sodium cations. This adsorption of sodium shows that NU-1000 can no longer inherently charge balance when adsorption beyond two anions per node occurs. In the absence of Na⁺ co-incorporation, for each doubly-charged selenate or selenite anion adsorbed, two negative charges must be given up by the MOF to maintain charge balance. One way for NU-1000 to accommodate two selenate or selenite anions per node (−4 charge) would be to substitute all four terminal hydroxyl groups (OH⁻) from the Zr₆ node; as detailed below there is likely a substitution of water molecules as well (FIG. 4A).

TABLE S1 Selenite and selenate adsorption per node in NU- 1000 when exposed to various concentrations of aqueous sodium selenate and sodium selenite. Exposure-Per Uptake-Per Node Node NU-1000- SeO₃ ²⁻ 2 1.5 NU-1000- SeO₄ ²⁻ 1.3 NU-1000- SeO₃ ²⁻ 3 1.8 NU-1000- SeO₄ ²⁻ 1.8 NU-1000- SeO₃ ²⁻ 4 1.7 NU-1000- SeO₄ ²⁻ 2.4* NU-1000- SeO₃ ²⁻ 5 1.8 NU-1000- SeO₄ ²⁻ 2.0 NU-1000- SeO₃ ²⁻ 6 2.2 NU-1000- SeO₄ ²⁻ 1.7 NU-1000- SeO₃ ²⁻ 7 4.3* NU-1000- SeO₄ ²⁻ 3.4* *Na⁺ was also adsorbed.

Diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) was used to gain insight into the location of the two analyte molecules per node of NU-1000. FIG. 8A illustrates DRIFTS spectrum of as-synthesized NU-1000 (lower trace) and after adsorption of two molecules of selenite (middle trace) and selenate (upper trace). FIG. 8B illustrates DRIFTS spectrum blown up from 4000-2000 cm′. FIG. 8C illustrates potential binding modes of selenate (or selenite) to the node of NU-1000. Prior to analyte adsorption, the IR spectrum of NU-1000 contains a sharp peak at 3670 cm⁻¹ (FIG. 8A/B, lowest trace) corresponding to stretching of the nodes' terminal —OH groups (FIG. 4a ). The spectrum also contains a small peak at 2745 cm⁻¹ (FIG. 8A/B lower trace) corresponding to O—H stretches from hydrogen-bonding between the aqua and hydroxyl ligands in the Zr₆-node (FIG. 4A). After adsorption of ca. two molecules of selenate or selenite per node, the O—H stretch at 3670 cm⁻¹ is greatly diminished and the hydrogen-bonding based O—H stretch at 2745 cm′ disappears completely (FIG. 8A/B, middle and upper traces, respectively). Based on this information, it is reasonable to suggest that each SeO₄ ²⁻ or SeO₃ ²⁻ anion replaces two terminal hydroxyl groups on the Zr₆-node. Therefore, when two analyte molecules are bound per node, all four terminal hydroxyl groups are replaced and analyte binding can occur in a η₂μ₂ or μ₂ fashion (FIG. 8C).

Pair distribution function (PDF) analyses of X-ray total scattering data were used to evaluate the structural changes accompanying binding of selenate and selenite anions. FIG. 9A illustrates ccalculated differential pair distribution functions (PDFs) for selenite and selenate-loaded NU-1000. FIG. 9B illustrates experimental differential PDFs for selenite and selenate-loaded NU-1000 only showing peaks at distances matching η₂μ₂ binding. Simulated PDFs indicate Se—Zr distances of 3.41 Å and 2.72 Å, respectively, for η₂μ₂ and μ2 binding (FIG. 9A). The experimental PDF results, evaluated from difference data so as to isolate atom-atom distances unique to the adsorbent/adsorbate combination, showed a feature at ˜3.4 Å (3.36 Å for selenite, 3.37 Å for selenate), but not at 2.7 Å, clearly indicating that these anions exclusively bind in an η₂μ₂ mode (FIG. 9B, wherein the curve for selenite begins higher on the left side). Both differential PDFs show peaks at ˜1.7 Å assignable to the Se—O distance within the anion, and features at 2.0-2.3 Å consistent with a slight contraction of the average Zr—O distance.

FIG. 10 illustrates selenate and selenite uptake vs. time in NU-1000 (2 mg) at low concentration and a starting concentration of 1000 ppb as Se. To test if current EPA standards for selenium in water can be satisfied by using NU-1000 as a sorbent, uptake of selenate and selenite at low concentrations was also studied. When exposed to 5 mL of an aqueous solution of selenium as sodium selenite or sodium selenate at 1000 ppb, 2 mg of NU-1000 adsorbed 98% of the selenite or selenate in solution in less than 5 minutes. After 3 hours, the amount adsorbed remained constant, meaning that the anions adsorbed after 5 minutes did not subsequently leach from the sorbent. With a remnant solution concentration of only ˜20 ppb selenium, test samples treated with NU-1000 meet the EPA standards for drinking water of <50 ppb selenium. It would be expected that those of skill in the art of engineering fluid cleanup equipment and the like would be able to optimize these results so as to contact the NU-1000 MOF with a continuous flow stream of aqueous solutions of selenate and selenite and to produce after suitable contact time an effluent water stream with concentration of these ions on the order of ten part per billion as selenium.

Adsorption of selenate and selenite by NU-1000 at low concentrations was also tested at 40° C. (FIG. 11) and pH 6 (FIG. 12) to simulate the conditions of recirculating cooling water from the flue gas desulfurization process in power plants where selenate and selenite remediation is a concern. FIG. 11 illustrates selenate and selenite uptake vs. time in NU-1000 (2 mg) at low concentration and 40° C. and a starting concentration of 1000 ppb as Se. FIG. 12 illustrates the selenate and selenite uptake vs. time in NU-1000 (2 mg) at low concentration and pH 6 and a starting concentration of 1000 ppb as Se. The successful tests showed that NU-1000 is a promising candidate for removal of selenite or selenate under power plant operating conditions.

FIGS. 13A-E illustrate the amount adsorbed (q) vs. time at various concentrations of selenate and selenite per node of NU-1000, wherein the amount adsorbed is presented in weight of the full oxy-anion in milligrams normalized by the weight of the bare NU-1000 MOF in grams. FIGS. 14A-C illustrate a Langmuir plot (linear, type I) for selenite and selenate adsorption on NU-1000, with adsorbed amount as the weight of the full oxy-anions. The amount of selenite and selenate adsorbed per gram of NU-1000 was probed by exposing the MOF to various concentrations of selenite or selenate and monitoring the amount adsorbed (q) in mg of analyte/g of adsorbent over time (FIGS. 13A-E). Adsorption isotherm data was fit using the Langmuir model and high correlation coefficients were obtained (FIGS. 14A-C). Using the Langmuir equation, the maximum adsorption capacity (Q) of NU-1000 for selenite is 95 mg/g and for selenate is 85 mg/g. These data are roughly comparable to a millimole level of analyte per gram of uptake media. At amounts (i.e., concentrations and volumes) corresponding to 1.00 to 3.00 selenite or selenate anions per node, NU-1000 was found to reach its maximum adsorption within 1 minute of exposure (FIG. 13). The adsorption capacity of NU-1000 places it among the highest-capacity selenate and selenite adsorbing materials described to date; these analyte oxy-anions are much larger in size than the typical sulfate or chloride anion and are harder to achieve overall uptake capacity in many typical adsorption or ion exchange media available commercially. The uptake time of <1 minute in particular sets NU-1000 apart from other materials such as aluminum oxide and iron oxide derivatives as well as ion exchange and polymer resins, each of which require 30 or more minutes to reach maximum adsorption capacity under equivalent conditions. This feature, along with the low equilibrium final Se concentrations seen for NU-1000, is likely a manifestation of the significantly improved binding capability of the MOF for the larger oxy-anions when compared to other available adsorption media.

Adsorption capacity as a function of time at different concentrations (q) is given in FIG. 14 where q=(C_(i)−C_(f))×V/m and C_(i)=initial concentration of selenate or selenite, C_(f)=final concentration at a given time, V=volume of selenate or selenite solution used and m=mass of NU-1000. For the Langmuir plots shown, the type I linear equation (FIG. 14) was used where C_(e)=equilibrium concentration of selenate or selenite in solution, q_(e)=equilibrium adsorption capacity, Q=maximum adsorption capacity of NU-1000 and K_(L)=Langmuir adsorption constant. q_(e) and C_(e) are taken as the average values of q and C_(f), respectively, from the analysis performed in FIG. 13 and described above.

TABLE S2 Values of C_(e) and q_(e) used in FIG. 14 for selenate and selenite adsorption on NU-1000. Selenite on NU-1000 Selenate on NU-1000 Ca. Per Node C_(e) q_(e) Ca. Per Node C_(e) q_(e) Exposure (ppm) (mg/g) Exposure (ppm) (mg/g) 1.00 7.0 45.9 1.00 7.0 37.1 1.50 12.5 52.3 1.50 9.4 46.2 2.00 23.9 63.8 2.00 23.3 53.8 2.50 33.9 73.9 2.50 31.3 61.6 3.00 41.0 83.4 3.00 39.1 69.9

FIG. 15A illustrates a powder X-ray diffraction pattern of as-synthesized NU-1000 compared to NU-1000 after adsorption of selenite or selenate. FIG. 15B illustrates a nitrogen adsorption isotherm of as-synthesized NU-1000 compared to NU-1000 after adsorption of selenite or selenate. Characterization of NU-1000 before and after adsorption of selenate and selenite suggests that the framework remains intact. Powder X-ray diffraction patterns are unchanged before and after adsorption. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) volumetric surface area of NU-1000 before adsorption is 1035±5 m²/cm³ (gravimetric surface area: 2130±5 m²/g) whereas after adsorption of selenate and selenite the volumetric surface area drops slightly to 682±10 m²/cm³ and 705±10 m²/cm³ respectively (gravimetric surface area: 1240±10 and 1300±10 m²/g) (FIG. 15B). Similarly modest decreases have been reported following Al(III) installation on NU-1000's nodes via atomic layer deposition.

FIGS. 16A-C illustrate selenate and selenite uptake as a function of time using 2 mg of NU-1000 and 10 mL of aqueous solution containing 100 ppb Se and (a) 100 ppb sulfur S and (b) 500 ppb S and (c) 1000 ppb S as sulfate. Specifically, FIGS. 16A-C illustrate the performance of the NU-1000 MOF using nodal uptake of selenate and selenite in the presence of competing sulfate anions.

Batch adsorption studies were performed for selenate and selenite uptake both in the presence of sulfate originally upon exposure to the bare MOF and as a “knock-off study” wherein sulfate was exposed to the MOF already having adsorbed the selenium oxy-anions. The competitive adsorption case was studied by exposing 2 mg of NU-1000 to 10 mL aqueous solutions containing 100 ppb Se as either SeO₄ ²⁻ or SeO₃ ²⁻ as well as 100, 500, or 1000 ppb S as SO₄ ²⁻. In all cases, >95% of the Se in solution is adsorbed (FIGS. 16A-C) and the presence of SO₄ ²⁻ (up to ten time higher concentration in ppb) has no effect on the SeO₄ ²⁻ or SeO₃ ²⁻ uptake at these concentrations. In addition, the remnant Se concentrations as SeO₃ ²⁻ or SeO₄ ²⁻ were found to be between 2-7 and 4-9 ppb Se, respectively.

The “knock-off” studies were performed by first exposing 2 mg of NU-1000 to 10 mL aqueous solutions containing 24 ppm Se as SeO₄ ²⁻ and SeO₃ ²⁻. This is equivalent to an exposure level of 3.3 Se/node, which was used to insure that NU-1000 was saturated with SeO₄ ²⁻ and SeO₃ ²⁻. NU-1000-2SeO₄ ²⁻ and NU-1000-2SeO₃ ²⁻ was then exposed to an aqueous solution containing 25 ppm SO₄ ²⁻ (equivalent to 3 S/node) and the leaching of SeO₄ ²⁻ and SeO₃ ²⁻ was probed as a function of time. There was minimal leaching (3%) of SeO₃ ²⁻ from NU-1000-2SeO₃ ²⁻ in the presence of SO₄ ²⁻ whereas leaching of SeO₄ ²⁻ from NU-1000-2SeO₄ ²⁻ was more significant (20%) in the presence of SO₄ ²⁻, but still low compared to many other types of adsorption media for which it is difficult even to obtain adsorption of both speciation of selenium oxy-anion without sulfate much less with a knock-off challenge.

The following describes the general methods used for the above analysis. UiO-66, UiO-66-NH₂, UiO-66-(NH₂)₂, UiO-66-(OH)₂ and UiO-67 were made according to procedures described in Katz, M. J.; Brown, Z. J.; Colon, Y. J.; Siu, P. W.; Scheidt, K. A.; Snurr, R. Q.; Hupp, J. T.; Farha, O. K. A facile synthesis of UiO-66, UiO-67 and their derivatives. Chem. Commun. 2013, 49, 9449-9451, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. NU-1000 was made according to a procedure described in Planas, N.; Mondloch, J. E.; Tussupbayev, S.; Borycz, J.; Gagliardi, L.; Hupp, J. T.; Farha, O. K.; Cramer, C. J. Defining the Proton Topology of the Zr₆-Based Metal-Organic Framework NU-1000. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2014, 5, 3716-3723, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Powder X-ray diffraction measurements were obtained using a Bruker MX IμS microsource with Cu-Kα radiation and an Apex II CCD detector. Measurements were made over a range of 2°<2θ<37°. N₂ adsorption and desorption isotherm measurements were performed on a Micromeritics Tristar II at 77K. Samples were activated by heating at 120° C. for 12 hours under high vacuum on a Micromeritics Smart VacPrep. All gases used were Ultra High Purity Grade 5 as obtained from Airgas Specialty Gases. DRIFTS were recorded on a Nicolet 6700 FTIR spectrometer equipped with an MCT detector that was cooled to 77 K. The spectra were collected in a KBr mixture under Argon purge (samples prepared in air). Pure KBr was measured as the background and subtracted from sample spectra. ICP-OES data were collected on a Varian Vista MPX ICP Spectrometer. ICP-MS data were collected on a ThermoFisher X Series II instrument equipped with Collision Cell Technology (CCT) to reduce interferences from doublets for accurate detection of Se. ICP standards were purchased from Fluka Analytical. The as-purchased Na and Se ICP standards were 1000 mg/L in 2% nitric acid, TraceCERT® and the Zr standard was 10 000 μg/mL in 4 wt % HCl. Standards for ICP-OES measurements (0.25-10 ppm) were prepared via serial dilution in 3% H₂SO₄ and standards for ICP-MS measurements (4-1000 ppb) were prepared via serial dilution in 3% HNO₃. Scattering data for PDF analysis were collected at beamline 11-ID-B at the Advanced Photon Source (APS) at Argonne National Laboratory (ANL). High energy X-rays (58.66 keV, λ=0.2114 Å) were used in combination with a Perkin Elmer amorphous silicon-based area detector. The samples were loaded into Kapton capillaries for PDF measurements under ambient conditions. PDF measurements were collected on NU-1000 samples containing selenate or selenite by taking 60 frames of 2 seconds exposure each. The 2-D scattering images were integrated to obtain 1-D scattering intensity data using software Fit2D. The structure function S(Q) was obtained within software PDFgetX3. Direct Fourier transform of the reduced structure function F(Q)=Q[S(Q)−1] led to the reduced pair distribution function, G(r), with Qmax=23 Å⁻¹. Contributions from the pristine MOF were measured under exactly same conditions and subtracted to yield differential PDF (dPDF). The dPDF data show the new contributions coming from Se-atom correlations. Models for Se coordination modes (η₂μ₂ or μ₂) to the MOF Zr-cluster were constructed within CrystalMaker. PDFs for both models were simulated using PDFGui³² and compared with the experimental ones.

Initial selenite/selenate uptake studies were performed by exposing 10 mg of MOF to 5 mL of an aqueous, 100 ppm solution of selenium as sodium selenite or sodium selenate in a 15 mL polypropylene centrifuge tube. 100 ppm control solutions of sodium selenite and sodium selenate were also prepared. The solutions were centrifuged for 1 minute to allow the MOF to settle to the bottom of the tube. After 72 hours, 0.5 mL of the supernatant was removed and diluted to 10 mL in 3% H₂SO₄ for ICP-OES measurements. ICP-OES was used to determine the concentration of Se, Zr, and Na in each solution. Comparison of control solutions to those containing MOF was used to determine the amount of selenate or selenite adsorbed by the MOF.

Kinetic studies were performed by exposing 10 mg of UiO-66-(NH₂)₂, UiO-66-NH₂ and NU-1000 to 5 mL of an aqueous, 100 ppm solution of selenium as sodium selenite or sodium selenate in a 15 mL polypropylene centrifuge tube. The solutions were centrifuged for 1 minute to allow the MOF to settle to the bottom of the tube. 0.5 mL aliquots of the supernatant were removed at 3, 27, and 72 hours and diluted to 10 mL in 3% H₂SO₄ for analysis by ICP-OES. ICP-OES was used to determine the concentration of Se, Zr, and Na in each solution. Comparison of control solutions to those containing MOF was used to determine the amount of selenate or selenite adsorbed by the MOF at each time.

The maximum uptake per node of NU-1000 was determined by exposing 2 mg of NU-1000 to 5 ml of an aqueous solution of sodium selenite or sodium selenate in a 15 ml polypropylene centrifuge tube with selenium concentrations of 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, and 105 ppm. These concentrations correspond to an exposure level of 2-7 analyte molecules per MOF node (i.e., Zr₆ cluster). The solutions were centrifuged for 1 minute to allow the MOF to settle to the bottom of the tube. Aliquots of the supernatant were removed and diluted to 10 mL in 3% H₂SO₄ for analysis by ICP-OES. ICP-OES was used to determine the concentration of Se, Zr, and Na in each solution. Comparison of control solutions to those containing MOF was used to determine the number of selenate or selenite anions adsorbed per node of NU-1000.

Low concentration kinetic studies were performed by exposing six 2 mg samples of NU-1000 to 5 mL of an aqueous, 1 ppm solution of selenium as sodium selenite or sodium selenate in a 15 mL polypropylene centrifuge tube. The solutions were centrifuged for 1 minute to allow the MOF to settle to the bottom of the tube. 2895 μL aliquots of the supernatant were removed from each solution at different times (5, 10, 15, 30, 60, and 180 minutes) and diluted to 3 mL in 3% HNO₃ for analysis by ICP-MS. ICP-MS was used to determine the concentration of Se, Zr, and Na in each solution. Comparison of control solutions to those containing MOF was used to determine the amount of selenate or selenite adsorbed by the MOF at each time. Studies at 40° C. and pH 6 were performed in the same fashion. To perform tests at 40° C., the selenate and selenite solutions were heated in a beaker full of Lab ARMOR BEADS and to perform tests at pH 6 the selenate and selenite solutions were made in pH 6 HCl.

The amount of selenate or selenite adsorbed per gram of NU-1000 was determined by exposing 5 mg of NU-1000 to 10 mL of an aqueous solution of selenium as sodium selenite or sodium selenate in a 15 mL polypropylene centrifuge tube with concentrations of ca. 18, 27, 36, 45, and 55 ppm. These concentrations correspond to an exposure level of 1.00, 1.50, 2.00, 2.50 and 3.00 analyte molecules per Zr₆-node of NU-1000. The solutions were centrifuged for 30 seconds to allow the MOF to settle to the bottom of the tube. Aliquots of the supernatant were removed and diluted to 10 mL in 3% H₂SO₄ at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 minutes for analysis by ICP-OES. ICP-OES was used to determine the concentration of Se, Zr, and Na in each solution. Comparison of control solutions to those containing MOF was used to determine the amount of selenate or selenite adsorbed (q) in mg/g of NU-1000 where q=(C_(i)−C_(f))×V/m, C_(i)=initial concentration, C_(f)=final concentration, V=volume of solution exposed to NU-1000 and m=mass of NU-1000 in g.

As noted above, Zr-based MOFs, including, for example, NU-1000, may remove other oxy-anions, such as oxy-anions of aluminum (that is, water soluble aluminum oxides/hydroxides), silicon (that is, silicates and hydrosilicates), phosphorus (such as phosphates and hydrophosphates), sulfur (that is, sulfates), chlorine (such as chlorates and perchlorates), geranium (that is, water soluble oxides/hydroxides of geranium), arsenic (such as, arsenates), tin (that is, stannates), antimony (such as antimonates and antimonites), iodine (such as iodates, per-iodates and iodites), and lead (that is, water soluble oxides/hydroxides of lead).

In some embodiments, the Zr-based MOF, including NU-1000, is used to adsorb oxy-anions of antimony, including oxy-anions in either the Sb[III] (antimonite) or the Sb[V] (antimonate) redox state. Antimony is used in pressurized water reactors as a neutron source (paired with beryllium), and thus, antimony is a constituent in the wastewater generated from nuclear power plants. Antimony is also released from the fuel oxide layer into primary coolant water during the shutdown of nuclear power plants resulting in major radiation doses to personnel and the surrounding environment. Common forms of antimony that are present in aqueous solutions under oxidizing conditions include Sb(OH)₆ ⁻, HSbO₂, Sb(OH)₃, and Sb(OH)⁴⁺. Therefore, the Zr-based MOF, including NU-1000, can be used to remove oxy-anions of antimony, including those listed above, from these sources.

NU-1000 was exposed to concentrations of Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ corresponding to 2-7 Sb/node. Aliquots were taken from the supernatant at 24 hours and 48 hours. Table S3 shows the amount of Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ adsorbed by NU-1000 per node. Antimony adsorption in NU-1000 per node after 24 hours and 48 hours using Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ as an antimony source.

TABLE S3 Antimony adsorption in NU-1000 per node after 24 hours and 48 hours using Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ as an antimony source. Per node Per node uptake Per node uptake Sb Exposure 24 hours 48 hours 2 1.36 1.45 3 1.76 1.99 4 1.88 2.06 5 1.87 2.07 6 2.21 2.33 7 1.94 2.00

FIGS. 17A-B illustrate the uptake of Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ over time in terms of uptake per node. Tests were performed to determine Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ uptake over time at Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ concentrations corresponding to 1.00, 1.50, 2.00, 2.50 and 3.00 Sb/Zr₆ node. Aliquots from each solution were taken at 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 240, 300, 360, 420, 1440, 1800, and 2880 minutes. These show that the adsorption kinetics for Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ in NU-1000 are fast with more than 60% of the total capacity reached in less than 1 minute. FIG. 18 illustrates a Langmuir fitting from the Sb adsorption isotherms of FIGS. 17A-B. FIG. 18 illustrates a maximum adsorption capacity for Sb(OH)₆ ⁻ in NU-1000 of 260 mg/g (or 142 mg/g Sb only).

FIG. 19 illustrates the powder x-ray diffraction pattern for NU-1000 and NU-1000 with Sb(OH)₆. This shows the stability of NU-1000 after adsorption of Sb(OH)₆ ⁻. PXRD, nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms, and ICP-OES measurements were taken to determine bulk crystallinity, porosity, and Zr leaching, respectively. The PXRD patterns show that the bulk crystallinity of NU-1000 remains intact after adsorption. FIG. 20 illustrates the nitrogen isotherm for NU-1000 and NU-1000 with Sb(OH)₆ ⁻. This shows that the surface area of the material decreases to approximately what would be expected given that mass is being added to the framework. Lastly, no Zr leaching from the framework is observed by ICP-OES.

Similar to the adsorption of oxy-anions of selenium, adsorption of oxy-anions of lead would be expected using a Zr-based MOF, including NU-1000. Lead in caustic solution in which its oxy-anion forms as previously identified above is believed to be involved in intergranular attack/stress corrosion cracking of steam generator tubes in nuclear power plants. Therefore, removal of these oxy-anions, including oxy-anions in either the Pb[II] or the Pb[IV] redox state, such as Pb(OH)₆ ²⁻, Pb(OH)₆ ⁴⁻, PbO₃ ²⁻, and PbO₂ ²⁻, from the related liquid streams would be beneficial.

It should be appreciated that in some embodiments, the MOFs of the present invention provide for the adsorption of the oxy-anions even in the present of other species that may compete for adsorption sites on the MOF. In particular, in some liquid streams, such as those in flue gas desulfurization systems, oxy-anions of boron and sulfur in the liquid phase may compete for adsorption sites on the MOF. However, even in the presence of these species, it has been found that the MOFs of the present invention still provided for the adsorption of oxy-anions. One of skill in the art will appreciate that the concentration of the various species, including the oxy-anion to be adsorbed and any competing species, should be taken into account in determining the concentration of the MOF to be used in the liquid stream of interest.

Tables S4, S5, and S6 show test results for the use of NU-1000 in a flue gas desulfurization liquid stream sample, both before and after the addition of the NU-1000. (With respect to Table S4, it should be recognized that Stage 1 FGD wastewater can contain many more particulate form selenates/selenites than soluble oxy-anions, which may account for the relatively small adsorption amounts after exposure to the MOF.)

TABLE S4 FGD wastewater (10 mL) before and after treatment with NU-1000 (10 mg) Sample Name Boron (ppm) Selenium (ppm) Sulfur (ppm) Stage 1-FGD (before) 75.2 0.252 386.8 With NU-1000 (after) 75.1 0.209 386.6

TABLE S5 FGD wastewater (10 mL) before and after treatment with NU-1000 (10 mg) Sample name Selenium Sulfur Boron Sodium Stage 3-FGD (before) 19.6 ppb 865.3 ppm 19.5 ppm 147.0 ppm With NU-1000 (after)  2.3 ppb 788.0 ppm 18.4 ppm 146.8 ppm

TABLE S6 Uptake of Se from FGD wastewater with various amounts of NU-1000 Sample Name 2 min 10 min 20 min 1 hr Stage 3-FGD (before) 21.78 ppb 21.78 ppb 21.78 ppb 21.78 ppb After 10 mg NU-1000 14.68 ppb 10.52 ppb 10.33 ppb 10.20 ppb After 25 mg NU-1000 10.35 ppb  6.33 ppb  6.25 ppb  6.10 ppb After 50 mg NU-1000  5.59 ppb  4.51 ppb  4.29 ppb  3.97 ppb

With respect to Tables S4 and S5, 10 mg of NU-1000 was added to 10 mL of wastewater, which is equivalent to exposure levels of 15B/Zr₆ node, 26S/Zr₆ node and only 0.007Se/Zr₆ node, which are very challenging competitive conditions. Table S4 shows the levels of B, Se and S in the wastewater after treatment with NU-1000, and only 100 ppb B, 43 ppb Se, and 160 ppb of S were taken up by the MOF. Given that exposure levels of B and S are 2100× and 3700× that of Se, the NU-1000 is still able to adsorb Se. Accordingly, in some embodiments, adsorption of selenium oxy-anions still occurs in the presence of ions present at a range of 100-10,000× the selenium oxy-anion concentration.

With respect to Table S6, different amounts of NU-1000 (50 mg, 25 mg, 10 mg, 5 mg) were tested for the removal of SeO_(x) ²⁻ from stage 3 FGD water and data points were taken at shorter times (5 min, 10 min, 30 min). This shows the minimum amount of MOF and the shortest time possible to obtain the desired results. As apparent from Table S6, as the amount of MOF increases and the time of exposure increases, the effluent concentration of the oxyanion remaining in the plant water sample decreases. MOF exposure time and MOF loading improvements appear to be equivalent in their ability to improve oxyanion uptake.

The Zr-based MOFs of the present invention may range in crystalline size and still provide for the adsorption of the oxy-anions noted above. In some embodiments, the crystalline size of NU-1000 may range from approximately 75-5000 nm. In some embodiments, the crystalline size of NU-1000 may range from approximately 75-1200 nm or from approximately 300-5000 nm. In some embodiments, the NU-1000 may range from 75-1200 nm. In some embodiments, the MOFs of the present invention may have relatively large apertures, for example, up to approximately 30 {acute over (Å)} or larger, which promotes diffusion of the analytes and improves the uptake kinetics. It should be appreciated that a larger aperture MOF will allow diffusive access of the oxy-anion to the available nodes for uptake more readily than smaller geometries.

In use and according to one embodiment of the present invention, the MOF of the present invention can be used to selectively remove particular species from a liquid stream. The particular MOF can be attached to any structure that is used to facilitate contact between the liquid stream having the particular species to be removed and the MOF. For example, the MOF can be attached to precoatable filter/demineralizers or independent packed columns, including such devices already in use at a given facility or plant (e.g., existing vessels used for ion exchange). Thereafter, the structure can be appropriately mounted to allow contact between the liquid stream and the MOF on the structure. Once in contact with the liquid stream, the particular species to be removed is adsorbed onto the MOF, thereby reducing the concentration of that species in the liquid stream.

Because there exists in the literature established chemistries for altering the metal components of a MOF, one of sufficient expertise in the art ought to be able to produce MOFs related to NU-1000 that contain less expensive metal constituents, like using zirconium metal precursors which are only 90% pure and contain hafnium. In fact, in the present invention, one embodiment was tested in which an NU-1000 MOF analogue containing Zr:Hf within the nodal components at a ratio of 9:1. It was found in similar experiments as those prescribed above for NU-1000 itself, that the 90% Zr/10% Hf MOF indeed exhibited similar excellent nodal uptake of selenium derived oxy-anions (i.e., 90% to as high as 95% of the uptake seen with the pure Zr NU-1000 MOF), implying that commercial cost reduction should be possible through the use of less pure zirconium starting materials to make NU-1000.

Similarly, because there exist in the literature established chemistries for modifying the linker portion of a MOF, such as SALE (solvent assisted linker exchange) and SALI (solvent assisted ligand incorporation: see for example, P. Deria, W. Bury, J. T. Hupp and O. K. Farha, “Versatile Functionalization of the NU-1000 Platform by Solvent-Assisted Ligand Incorporation,” Chem. Commun. 2014, 50, 1965-1068; and, P. Deria, J. E. Mondloch, O. Karagiardi, W. Bury, J. T. Hupp and O. K. Farha, “Beyond Post-Synthesis Modification: Evolution of Metal-Organic Frameworks via Building Block Replacement,” Chem. Soc. Rev., 2014, 43, 5896-5912), one of expertise in the art should be able to envision suitable algorithms for applying such chemistries to introduce into the NU-1000 MOF cavity appropriate ligand functionalities that further attract oxy-anions like selenate and selenite so as to enhance the overall binding capacity of the material for these analyte species and hence to improve engineering operations employing these media for water treatment functions. In the specific case of selenate or selenite, one linker chemistry expected by those expert in the art of theoretical bonding calculation is a functionalized urea chemistry, like a pyridyl-urea held pendant on a carbon or ether oxygen linear chain of sufficient length (for example, six to twelve elemental carbon or oxygen atoms long) to allow the urea derived ligand to contact the selenium oxy-anions that permeate the MOF cavity, with an appropriate terminal group to attach said ligand onto the MOF cavity and aperture forming components.

Finally, because it is known that generally one expert in the art should be able to derive regeneration procedures for anion removal media via acid treatment, such as but not limited to hydrochloric, sulfuric or nitric acid washes, so as to recover previously used removal media for re-use with the overall purpose of operation cost reduction. As such, one expert in the art should be able to subject MOFs to similar acid washing techniques to regenerate NU-1000 for continued re-use once saturated with oxy-anion impurity, such that overall cost of the water treatment operation employing the MOF is reduced to a point of economic feasibility.

Various embodiments of the invention have been described above. However, it should be appreciated that alternative embodiments are possible and that the invention is not limited to the specific embodiments described above. For example, in some embodiments, adsorption of aqueous selenate and selenite can be obtained by a series of highly porous, water stable, Zr-based MOFs. Of the seven MOFs examined, NU-1000 was found to exhibit both the highest gravimetric adsorption capacity and fastest rate of uptake. The results point to the importance of both large MOF apertures and substantial numbers of node-based adsorption sites, i.e. substitutional labile Zr(IV) coordination sites, for rapid and effective selenate and selenite adsorption and removal to occur. Both anions are shown to bind to the node in a bridging (η₂μ₂) fashion where one di-anion bridges two zirconium metal centers. In contrast to many materials and associated technologies for selenium remediation, which are reasonably effective only for selenite, NU-1000 displays a strong affinity for both selenate and selenite. In some embodiments, adsorption of oxy-anions of antimony, including oxy-anions in either the Sb[III] (antimonite) or the Sb[V] (antimonate) redox state; and oxy-anions of lead, including oxy-anions in either the Pb[II] or the Pb[IV] redox state, such as Pb(OH)₆ ²⁻, Pb(OH)₆ ⁴⁻, PbO₃ ²⁻, and PbO₂ ²⁻ can be obtained by a series of highly porous, water stable, Zr-based MOFs. Further, adsorption of these species can be obtained even in the presence of competitive species. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for reducing the concentration of a oxy-anions from a liquid stream, comprising: contacting a liquid stream comprising an oxy-anion with a zirconium-based metal-organic framework; and complexing the oxy-anion with the metal-organic framework, thereby reducing the concentration of the oxy-anion in the liquid stream.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the oxy-anion comprises a selenium oxy-anion.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the selenium oxy-anion comprises selenate.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the metal-organic framework comprises NU-1000 and the adsorption capacity of the NU-1000 is approximately 85 mg selenate/g metal-organic framework or less.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the selenium oxy-anion comprises selenite.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the metal-organic framework comprises NU-1000 and the adsorption capacity of the NU-1000 is approximately 95 mg selenite/g metal-organic framework or less.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the liquid stream further comprises a competing chemical species.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the oxy-anion comprises a selenium oxy-anion and the competing chemical species comprises an oxy-anion of sulfur.
 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the oxy-anion comprises a selenium oxy-anion and the competing chemical species comprises an oxy-anion of boron.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal-organic framework comprises NU-1000.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the crystalline size of the NU-1000 is approximately 75-1200 nm.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the crystalline size of the NU-1000 is up to approximately 1500 nm.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the concentration of the oxy-anion in the liquid stream after said complexing is less than 20 ppb.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the oxy-anion comprises an antimony oxy-anion.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the antimony oxy-anion comprises Sb[V].
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the antimony oxy-anion comprises Sb[III].
 17. The method of claim 14, wherein the metal-organic framework comprises NU-1000 and the adsorption capacity of the NU-1000 is approximately 260 mg Sb(OH)₆/g metal-organic framework or less.
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the oxy-anion comprises a lead oxy-anion.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the lead oxy-anion comprises Pb(OH)₆ ²⁻.
 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the lead oxy-anion comprises Pb(OH)₆ ⁴⁻.
 21. The method of claim 18, wherein the lead oxy-anion comprises PbO₃ ²⁻.
 22. The method of claim 18, wherein the lead oxy-anion comprises PbO₂ ²⁻. 